Milk handling practices and milk spoilage along the informal dairy value chain of Uganda

Abstract

In low-and middle-income countries such as Uganda, smallholder dairy farmers rely heavily on milk production for income, nutrition, and livelihood security. However, improper milk handling and weak enforcement of food safety regulations remain major challenges. This study assessed awareness and milk handling practices among key actors inthe informal dairy value chain. A cross-sectional survey was conducted from January to April 2024 across Uganda’s six milk sheds using a multistage cluster sampling design. A total of 384 farmers, 231 Milk Collection Centres (MCCs), and 70 Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) were surveyed. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and mixed-effects logistic regression. Among farmers, common vices included long nails (48%), improper handwashing (34%), and unguided coughing or sneezing. Poor hygienic practices, such as failure to wash udders before milking (50.9%), use of a common udder cloth for multiple cows (33.3%), and inadequate cleaning of milking containers, were significantly associated with milk spoilage (p < 0.05). Independent predictors amongfarmers included inadequate udder hygiene (Odd ratio (OR) = 6.94; 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 1.19–40.38), handwashing before milking (OR = 0.054; 95% CI: 0.006–0.497), drying hands before milking (OR = 11.05; 95% CI: 1.26–96.87), and aluminium versus plastic containers (OR = 0.103; 95% CI: 0.012–0.899). At MCCs, body scratching (OR = 32.05; 95% CI: 1.08–948.57), finger licking (OR = 0.231; 95% CI: 0.060–0.886), milk testing (OR = 34.06; 95% CI: 2.53–458.07), and use of gumboots (OR = 0.115; 95% CI: 0.022–0.595) were significant predictors. Among SMEs, spoilage was associated with working as a Quality Controller (OR = 23.82; 95% CI: 1.89–299.51) or Operator (OR = 99.92; 95% CI: 3.29–3039.56) and using a cloth for filtering milk (OR = 0.064; 95% CI: 0.005–0.830). Overall, poor hygienic practices were the strongest determinant of contamination along the informal dairy value chain. These findings highlight the urgent need for targeted training and technical support to improve milk handling practices and protect consumer health.